Full Text of General Act of the Berlin Conference on West Africa

Signed by the representatives of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, the United States of America, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Sweden-Norway, and Turkey (Ottoman Empire). (Printable version  of this text) GENERAL ACT OF THE CONFERENCE AT BERLIN OF THE PLENIPOTENTIARIES OF GREAT BRITAIN, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, BELGIUM, DENMARK, FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, THE NETHERLANDS, PORTUGAL, RUSSIA, SPAIN, SWEDEN AND NORWAY, TURKEY AND THE UNITED STATES RESPECTING: (1) FREEDOM OF TRADE IN THE BASIN OF THE CONGO; (2) THE SLAVE TRADE; (3) NEUTRALITY OF THE TERRITORIES IN THE BASIN OF THE CONGO; (4) NAVIGATION OF THE CONGO; (5) NAVIGATION OF THE NIGER; AND (6) RULES FOR FUTURE OCCUPATION ON THE COAST OF THE AFRICAN CONTINENT In the Name of God Almighty. Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India; His Majesty the German Emperor, King of Prussia; His Majesty the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia, etc, and Apostolic King of Hungary; His Majesty the King of the Belgians; His Majesty the King of Denmark; His Majesty the King of Spain; the President of the United States of America; the President of the French Republic; His Majesty the King of Italy; His Majesty the King of the Netherlands, Grand Duke of Luxemburg, etc; His Majesty the King of Portugal and the Algarves, etc; His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias; His Majesty the King of Sweden and Norway, etc; and His Majesty the Emperor of the Ottomans, WISHING, in a spirit of good and mutual accord, to regulate the conditions most favourable to the development of trade and civilization in certain regions of Africa, and to assure to all nations the advantages of free navigation on the two chief rivers of Africa flowing into the Atlantic Ocean; BEING DESIROUS, on the other hand, to obviate the misunderstanding and disputes which might in future arise from new acts of occupation (prises de possession) on the coast of Africa; and concerned, at the same time, as to the means of furthering the moral and material well-being of the native populations; HAVE RESOLVED, on the invitation addressed to them by the Imperial Government of Germany, in agreement with the Government of the French Republic, to meet for those purposes in Conference at Berlin, and have appointed as their Plenipotentiaries, to wit: [Names of plenipotentiaries included here.] Who, being provided with full powers, which have been found in good and due form, have successively discussed and adopted: 1. A Declaration relative to freedom of trade in the basin of the Congo, its embouchures and circumjacent regions, with other provisions connected therewith. 2. A Declaration relative to the slave trade, and the operations by sea or land which furnish slaves to that trade. 3. A Declaration relative to the neutrality of the territories comprised in the Conventional basin of the Congo. 4. An Act of Navigation for the Congo, which, while having regard to local circumstances, extends to this river, its affluents, and the waters in its system (eaux qui leur sont assimilà ©es), the general principles enunciated in Articles 58 and 66 of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna, and intended to regulate, as between the Signatory Powers of that Act, the free navigation of the waterways separating or traversing several States - these said principles having since then been applied by agreement to certain rivers of Europe and America, but especially to the Danube, with the modifications stipulated by the Treaties of Paris (1856), of Berlin (1878), and of London (1871 and 1883). 5. An Act of Navigation for the Niger, which, while likewise having regard to local circumstances, extends to this river and its affluents the same principles as set forth in Articles 58 and 66 of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna. 6. A Declaration introducing into international relations certain uniform rules with reference to future occupations on the coast of the African Continent. And deeming it expedient that all these several documents should be combined in one single instrument, they (the Signatory Powers) have collected them into one General Act, composed of the following Articles: CHAPTER I DECLARATION RELATIVE TO FREEDOM OF TRADE IN THE BASIN OF THE CONGO, ITS MOUTHS AND CIRCUMJACENT REGIONS, WITH OTHER PROVISIONS CONNECTED THEREWITH Article 1 The trade of all nations shall enjoy complete freedom- 1. In all the regions forming the basin of the Congo and its outlets. This basin is bounded by the watersheds (or mountain ridges) of the adjacent basins, namely, in particular, those of the Niari, the Ogowà ©, the Schari, and the Nile, on the north; by the eastern watershed line of the affluents of Lake Tanganyika on the east; and by the watersheds of the basins of the Zambesi and the Logà © on the south. It therefore comprises all the regions watered by the Congo and its affluents, including Lake Tanganyika, with its eastern tributaries. 2. In the maritime zone extending along the Atlantic Ocean from the parallel situated in 2 º30 of south latitude to the mouth of the Logà ©. The northern boundary will follow the parallel situated in 2 º30 from the coast to the point where it meets the geographical basin of the Congo, avoiding the basin of the Ogowà ©, to which the provisions of the present Act do not apply. The southern boundary will follow the course of the Logà © to its source, and thence pass eastwards till it joins the geographical basin of the Congo. 3. In the zone stretching eastwards from the Congo Basin, as above defined, to the Indian Ocean from 5 degrees of north latitude to the mouth of the Zambesi in the south, from which point the line of demarcation will ascend the Zambesi to 5 miles above its confluence with the Shirà ©, and then follow the watershed between the affluents of Lake Nyassa and those of the Zambesi, till at last it reaches the watershed between the waters of the Zambesi and the Congo. It is expressly recognized that in extending the principle of free trade to this eastern zone the Conference Powers only undertake engagements for themselves, and that in the territories belonging to an independent Sovereign State this principle shall only be applicable in so far as it is approved by such State. But the Powers agree to use their good offices with the Governments established on the African shore of the Indian Ocean for the purpose of obtaining such approval, and in any case of securing the most favourable conditions to the transit (traffic) of all nations. Article 2 All flags, without distinction of nationality, shall have free access to the whole of the coastline of the territories above enumerated, to the rivers there running into the sea, to all the waters of the Congo and its affluents, including the lakes, and to all the ports situate on the banks of these waters, as well as to all canals which may in future be constructed with intent to unite the watercourses or lakes within the entire area of the territories described in Article 1. Those trading under such flags may engage in all sorts of transport, and carry on the coasting trade by sea and river, as well as boat traffic, on the same footing as if they were subjects. Article 3 Wares, of whatever origin, imported into these regions, under whatsoever flag, by sea or river, or overland, shall be subject to no other taxes than such as may be levied as fair compensation for expenditure in the interests of trade, and which for this reason must be equally borne by the subjects themselves and by foreigners of all nationalities. All differential dues on vessels, as well as on merchandise, are forbidden. Article 4 Merchandise imported into these regions shall remain free from import and transit dues. The Powers reserve to themselves to determine after the lapse of twenty years whether this freedom of import shall be retained or not. Article 5 No Power which exercises or shall exercise sovereign rights in the abovementioned regions shall be allowed to grant therein a monopoly or favour of any kind in matters of trade. Foreigners, without distinction, shall enjoy protection of their persons and property, as well as the right of acquiring and transferring movable and immovable possessions; and national rights and treatment in the exercise of their professions. PROVISIONS RELATIVE TO PROTECTION OF THE NATIVES, OF MISSIONARIES AND TRAVELLERS, AS WELL AS RELATIVE TO RELIGIOUS LIBERTY Article 6 All the Powers exercising sovereign rights or influence in the aforesaid territories bind themselves to watch over the preservation of the native tribes, and to care for the improvement of the conditions of their moral and material well-being, and to help in suppressing slavery, and especially the slave trade. They shall, without distinction of creed or nation, protect and favour all religious, scientific or charitable institutions and undertakings created and organized for the above ends, or which aim at instructing the natives and bringing home to them the blessings of civilization. Christian missionaries, scientists and explorers, with their followers, property and collections, shall likewise be the objects of especial protection. Freedom of conscience and religious toleration are expressly guaranteed to the natives, no less than to subjects and to foreigners. The free and public exercise of all forms of divine worship, and the right to build edifices for religious purposes, and to organize religious missions belonging to all creeds, shall not be limited or fettered in any way whatsoever. POSTAL REGIME Article 7 The Convention of the Universal Postal Union, as revised at Paris 1 June 1878, shall be applied to the Conventional basin of the Congo. The Powers who therein do or shall exercise rights of sovereignty or Protectorate engage, as soon as circumstances permit them, to take the measures necessary for the carrying out of the preceding provision. RIGHT OF SURVEILLANCE VESTED IN THE INTERNATIONAL NAVIGATION COMMISSION OF THE CONGO Article 8 In all parts of the territory had in view by the present Declaration, where no Power shall exercise rights of sovereignty or Protectorate, the International Navigation Commission of the Congo, instituted in virtue of Article 17, shall be charged with supervising the application of the principles proclaimed and perpetuated (consacrà ©s) by this Declaration. In all cases of difference arising relative to the application of the principles established by the present Declaration, the Governments concerned may agree to appeal to the good offices of the International Commission, by submitting to it an examination of the facts which shall have occasioned these differences. CHAPTER II DECLARATION RELATIVE TO THE SLAVE TRADE Article 9 Seeing that trading in slaves is forbidden in conformity with the principles of international law as recognized by the Signatory Powers, and seeing also that the operations, which, by sea or land, furnish slaves to trade, ought likewise to be regarded as forbidden, the Powers which do or shall exercise sovereign rights or influence in the territories forming the Conventional basin of the Congo declare that these territories may not serve as a market or means of transit for the trade in slaves, of whatever race they may be. Each of the Powers binds itself to employ all the means at its disposal for putting an end to this trade and for punishing those who engage in it. CHAPTER III DECLARATION RELATIVE TO THE NEUTRALITY OF THE TERRITORIES COMPRISED IN THE CONVENTIONAL BASIN OF THE CONGO Article 10 In order to give a new guarantee of security to trade and industry, and to encourage, by the maintenance of peace, the development of civilization in the countries mentioned in Article 1, and placed under the free trade system, the High Signatory Parties to the present Act, and those who shall hereafter adopt it, bind themselves to respect the neutrality of the territories, or portions of territories, belonging to the said countries, comprising therein the territorial waters, so long as the Powers which exercise or shall exercise the rights of sovereignty or Protectorate over those territories, using their option of proclaiming themselves neutral, shall fulfil the duties which neutrality requires. Article 11 In case a Power exercising rights of sovereignty or Protectorate in the countries mentioned in Article 1, and placed under the free trade system, shall be involved in a war, then the High Signatory Parties to the present Act, and those who shall hereafter adopt it, bind themselves to lend their good offices in order that the territories belonging to this Power and comprised in the Conventional free trade zone shall, by the common consent of this Power and of the other belligerent or belligerents, be placed during the war under the rule of neutrality, and considered as belonging to a non-belligerent State, the belligerents thenceforth abstaining from extending hostilities to the territories thus neutralized, and from using them as a base for warlike operations. Article 12 In case a serious disagreement originating on the subject of, or in the limits of, the territories mentioned in Article 1, and placed under the free trade system, shall arise between any Signatory Powers of the present Act, or the Powers which may become parties to it, these Powers bind themselves, before appealing to arms, to have recourse to the mediation of one or more of the friendly Powers. In a similar case the same Powers reserve to themselves the option of having recourse to arbitration. CHAPTER IV ACT OF NAVIGATION FOR THE CONGO Article 13 The navigation of the Congo, without excepting any of its branches or outlets, is, and shall remain, free for the merchant ships of all nations equally, whether carrying cargo or ballast, for the transport of goods or passengers. It shall be regulated by the provisions of this Act of Navigation, and by the rules to be made in pursuance thereof. In the exercise of this navigation the subjects and flags of all nations shall in all respects be treated on a footing of perfect equality, not only for the direct navigation from the open sea to the inland ports of the Congo, and vice versa, but also for the great and small coasting trade, and for boat traffic on the course of the river. Consequently, on all the course and mouths of the Congo there will be no distinction made between the subjects of riverain States and those of non-riverain States, and no exclusive privilege of navigation will be conceded to companies, corporations or private persons whatsoever. These provisions are recognized by the Signatory Powers as becoming henceforth a part of international law. Article 14 The navigation of the Congo shall not be subject to any restriction or obligation which is not expressly stipulated by the present Act. It shall not be exposed to any landing dues, to any station or depot tax, or to any charge for breaking bulk, or for compulsory entry into port. In all the extent of the Congo the ships and goods in process of transit on the river shall be submitted to no transit dues, whatever their starting place or destination. There shall be levied no maritime or river toll based on the mere fact of navigation, nor any tax on goods aboard of ships. There shall only be levied taxes or duties having the character of an equivalent for services rendered to navigation itself, to wit: 1. Harbour dues on certain local establishments, such as wharves, warehouses, etc, if actually used. The tariff of such dues shall be framed according to the cost of constructing and maintaining the said local establishments; and it will be applied without regard to whence vessels come or what they are loaded with. 2. Pilot dues for those stretches of the river where it may be necessary to establish properly qualified pilots. The tariff of these dues shall be fixed and calculated in proportion to the service rendered. 3. Charges raised to cover technical and administrative expenses incurred in the general interest of navigation, including lighthouse, beacon and buoy duties. The lastmentioned dues shall be based on the tonnage of vessels as shown by the ships papers, and in accordance with the rules adopted on the Lower Danube. The tariffs by which the various dues and taxes enumerated in the three preceding paragraphs shall be levied shall not involve any differential treatment, and shall be officially published at each port. The Powers reserve to themselves to consider, after the lapse of five years, whether it may be necessary to revise, by common accord, the abovementioned tariffs. Article 15 The affluents of the Congo shall in all respects be subject to the same rules as the river of which they are tributaries. And the same rules shall apply to the streams and river as well as the lakes and canals in the territories defined in paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1. At the same time the powers of the International Commission of the Congo will not extend to the said rivers, streams, lakes and canals, unless with the assent of the States under whose sovereignty they are placed. It is well understood, also, that with regard to the territories mentioned in paragraph 3 of Article 1 the consent of the Sovereign States owning these territories is reserved. Article 16 The roads, railways or lateral canals which may be constructed with the special object of obviating the innavigability or correcting the imperfection of the river route on certain sections of the course of the Congo, its affluents, and other waterways placed under a similar system, as laid down in Article 15, shall be considered in their quality of means of communication as dependencies of this river, and as equally open to the traffic of all nations. And, as on the river itself, so there shall be collected on these roads, railways and canals only tolls calculated on the cost of construction, maintenance and management, and on the profits due to the promoters. As regards the tariff of these tolls, strangers and the natives of the respective territories shall be treated on a footing of perfect equality. Article 17 There is instituted an International Commission, charged with the execution of the provisions of the present Act of Navigation. The Signatory Powers of this Act, as well as those who may subsequently adhere to it, may always be represented on the said Commission, each by one delegate. But no delegate shall have more than one vote at his disposal, even in the case of his representing several Governments. This delegate will be directly paid by his Government. As for the various agents and employees of the International Commission, their remuneration shall be charged to the amount of the dues collected in conformity with paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 14. The particulars of the said remuneration, as well as the number, grade and powers of the agents and employees, shall be entered in the returns to be sent yearly to the Governments represented on the International Commission. Article 18 The members of the International Commission, as well as its appointed agents, are invested with the privilege of inviolability in the exercise of their functions. The same guarantee shall apply to the offices and archives of the Commission. Article 19 The International Commission for the Navigation of the Congo shall be constituted as soon as five of the Signatory Powers of the present General Act shall have appointed their delegates. And, pending the constitution of the Commission, the nomination of these delegates shall be notified to the Imperial Government of Germany, which will see to it that the necessary steps are taken to summon the meeting of the Commission. The Commission will at once draw up navigation, river police, pilot and quarantine rules. These rules, as well as the tariffs to be framed by the Commission, shall, before coming into force, be submitted for approval to the Powers represented on the Commission. The Powers interested will have to communicate their views with as little delay as possible. Any infringement of these rules will be checked by the agents of the International Commission wherever it exercises direct authority, and elsewhere by the riverain Power. In the case of an abuse of power, or of an act of injustice, on the part of any agent or employee of the International Commission, the individual who considers himself to be aggrieved in his person or rights may apply to the consular agent of his country. The latter will examine his complaint, and if he finds it prima facie reasonable he will then be entitled to bring it before the Commission. At his instance then, the Commission, represented by at least three of its members, shall, in conjunction with him, inquire into the conduct of its agent or employee. Should the consular agent look upon the decision of the Commission as raising questions of law (objections de droit), he will report on the subject to his Government, which may then have recourse to the Powers represented on the Commission, and invite them to agree as to the instructions to be given to the Commission. Article 20 The International Commission of the Congo, charged in terms of Article 17 with the execution of the present Act of Navigation, shall in particular have power- 1. To decide what works are necessary to assure the navigability of the Congo in accordance with the needs of international trade. On those sections of the river where no Power exercises sovereign rights the International Commission will itself take the necessary measures for assuring the navigability of the river. On those sections of the river held by a Sovereign Power the International Commission will concert its action (sentendra) with the riparian authorities. 2. To fix the pilot tariff and that of the general navigation dues as provided for by paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 14. The tariffs mentioned in the first paragraph of Article 14 shall be framed by the territorial authorities within the limits prescribed in the said Article. The levying of the various dues shall be seen to by the international or territorial authorities on whose behalf they are established. 3. To administer the revenue arising from the application of the preceding paragraph (2). 4. To superintend the quarantine establishment created in virtue of Article 24. 5. To appoint officials for the general service of navigation, and also its own proper employees. It will be for the territorial authorities to appoint sub-inspectors on sections of the river occupied by a Power, and for the International Commission to do so on the other sections. The riverain Power will notify to the International Commission the appointment of sub-inspectors, and this Power will undertake the payment of their salaries. In the exercise of its functions, as above defined and limited, the International Commission will be independent of the territorial authorities. Article 21 In the accomplishment of its task the International Commission may, if need be, have recourse to the war vessels of the Signatory Powers of this Act, and of those who may in future accede to it, under reserve, however, of the instructions which may be given to the commanders of these vessels by their respective Governments. Article 22 The war vessels of the Signatory Powers of this Act that may enter the Congo are exempt from payment of the navigation dues provided for in paragraph 3 of Article 14; but, unless their intervention has been called for by the International Commission or its agents, in terms of the preceding Article, they shall be liable to the payment of the pilot or harbour dues which may eventually be established. Article 23 With the view of providing for the technical and administrative expenses which it may incur, the International Commission created by Article 17 may, in its own name, negotiate loans to be exclusively guaranteed by the revenues raised by the said Commission. The decisions of the Commission dealing with the conclusion of a loan must be come to by a majority of two-thirds. It is understood that the Governments represented on the Commission shall not in any case be held as assuming any guarantee, or as contracting any engagement or joint liability (solidarità ©) with respect to the said loans, unless under special Conventions concluded by them to this effect. The revenue yielded by the dues specified in paragraph 3 of Article 14 shall bear, as a first charge, the payment of the interest and sinking fund of the said loans, according to agreement with the lenders. Article 24 At the mouth of the Congo there shall be founded, either on the initiative of the riverain Powers, or by the intervention of the International Commission, a quarantine establishment for the control of vessels passing out of as well as into the river. Later on the Powers will decide whether and on what conditions a sanitary control shall be exercised over vessels engaged in the navigation of the river itself. Article 25 The provisions of the present Act of Navigation shall remain in force in time of war. Consequently all nations, whether neutral or belligerent, shall be always free, for the purposes of trade, to navigate the Congo, its branches, affluents and mouths, as well as the territorial waters fronting the embouchure of the river. Traffic will similarly remain free, despite a state of war, on the roads, railways, lakes and canals mentioned in Articles 15 and 16. There will be no exception to this principle, except in so far as concerns the transport of articles intended for a belligerent, and in virtue of the law of nations regarded as contraband of war. All the works and establishments created in pursuance of the present Act, especially the tax collecting offices and their treasuries, as well as the permanent service staff of these establishments, shall enjoy the benefits of neutrality (placà ©s sous le rà ©gime de la neutralità ©), and shall, therefore, be respected and protected by belligerents. CHAPTER V ACT OF NAVIGATION FOR THE NIGER Article 26 The navigation of the Niger, without excepting any of its branches and outlets, is and shall remain entirely free for the merchant ships of all nations equally, whether with cargo or ballast, for the transportation of goods and passengers. It shall be regulated by the provisions of this Act of Navigation, and by the rules to be made in pursuance of this Act. In the exercise of this navigation the subjects and flags of all nations shall be treated, in all circumstances, on a footing of perfect equality, not only for the direct navigation from the open sea to the inland ports of the Niger, and vice versa, but for the great and small coasting trade, and for boat trade on the course of the river. Consequently, on all the course and mouths of the Niger there will be no distinction made between the subjects of the riverain States and those of non-riverain States; and no exclusive privilege of navigation will be conceded to companies, corporations or private persons. These provisions are recognized by the Signatory Powers as forming henceforth a part of international law. Article 27 The navigation of the Niger shall not be subject to any restriction or obligation based merely on the fact of navigation. It shall not be exposed to any obligation in regard to landing-station or depot, or for breaking bulk, or for compulsory entry into port. In all the extent of the Niger the ships and goods in process of transit on the river shall be submitted to no transit dues, whatever their starting place or destination. No maritime or river toll shall be levied based on the sole fact of navigation, nor any tax on goods on board of ships. There shall only be collected taxes or duties which shall be an equivalent for services rendered to navigation itself. The tariff of these taxes or duties shall not warrant any differential treatment. Article 28 The affluents of the Niger shall be in all respects subject to the same rules as the river of which they are tributaries. Article 29 The roads, railways or lateral canals which may be constructed with the special object of obviating the innavigability or correcting the imperfections of the river route on certain sections of the course of the Niger, its affluents, branches and outlets, shall be considered, in their quality of means of communication, as dependencies of this river, and as equally open to the traffic of all nations. And, as on the river itself, so there shall be collected on these roads, railways and canals only tolls calculated on the cost of construction, maintenance and management, and on the profits due to the promoters. As regards the tariff of these tolls, strangers and the natives of the respective territories shall be treated on a footing of perfect equality. Article 30 Great Britain undertakes to apply the principles of freedom of navigation enunciated in Articles 26, 27, 28 and 29 on so much of the waters of the Niger, its affluents, branches and outlets, as are or may be under her sovereignty or protection. The rules which she may establish for the safety and control of navigation shall be drawn up in a way to facilitate, as far as possible, the circulation of merchant ships. It is understood that nothing in these obligations shall be interpreted as hindering Great Britain from making any rules of navigation whatever which shall not be contrary to the spirit of these engagements. Great Britain undertakes to protect foreign merchants and all the trading nationalities on all those portions of the Niger which are or may be under her sovereignty or protection as if they were her own subjects, provided always that such merchants conform to the rules which are or shall be made in virtue of the foregoing. Article 31 France accepts, under the same reservations, and in identical terms, the obligations undertaken in the preceding Articles in respect of so much of the waters of the Niger, its affluents, branches and outlets, as are or may be under her sovereignty or protection. Article 32 Each of the other Signatory Powers binds itself in the same way in case it should ever exercise in the future rights of sovereignty or protection over any portion of the waters of the Niger, its affluents, branches or outlets. Article 33 The arrangements of the present Act of Navigation will remain in force in time of war. Consequently, the navigation of all neutral or belligerent nationals will be in all time free for the usages of commerce on the Niger, its branches, its affluents, its mouths and outlets, as well as on the territorial waters opposite the mouths and outlets of that river. The traffic will remain equally free in spite of a state of war on the roads, railways and canals mentioned in Article 29. There will be an exception to this principle only in that which relates to the transport of articles destined for a belligerent, and considered, in virtue of the law of nations, as articles contraband of war. CHAPTER VI DECLARATION RELATIVE TO THE ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN ORDER THAT NEW OCCUPATIONS ON THE COASTS OF THE AFRICAN CONTINENT MAY BE HELD TO BE EFFECTIVE Article 34 Any Power which henceforth takes possession of a tract of land on the coasts of the African continent outside of its present possessions, or which, being hitherto without such possessions, shall acquire them, as well as the Power which assumes a Protectorate there, shall accompany the respective act with a notification thereof, addressed to the other Signatory Powers of the present Act, in order to enable them, if need be, to make good any claims of their own. Article 35 The Signatory Powers of the present Act recognize the obligation to insure the establishment of authority in the regions occupied by them on the coasts of the African continent sufficient to protect existing rights, and, as the case may be, freedom of trade and of transit under the conditions agreed upon. CHAPTER VII GENERAL DISPOSITIONS Article 36 The Signatory Powers of the present General Act reserve to themselves to introduce into it subsequently, and by common accord, such modifications and improvements as experience may show to be expedient. Article 37 The Powers who have not signed the present General Act shall be free to adhere to its provisions by a separate instrument. The adhesion of each Power shall be notified in diplomatic form to the Government of the German Empire, and by it in turn to all the other signatory or adhering Powers. Such adhesion shall carry with it full acceptance of all the obligations as well as admission to all the advantages stipulated by the present General Act. Article 38 The present General Act shall be ratified with as little delay as possible, the same in no case to exceed a year. It will come into force for each Power from the date of its ratification by that Power. Meanwhile, the Signatory Powers of the present General Act bind themselves not to take any steps contrary to its provisions. Each Power will address its ratification to the Government of the German Empire, by which notice of the fact will be given to all the other Signatory Powers of the present Act. The ratifications of all the Powers will be deposited in the archives of the Government of the German Empire. When all the ratifications shall have been sent in, there will be drawn up a Deposit Act, in the shape of a Protocol, to be signed by the representatives of all the Powers which have taken part in the Conference of Berlin, and of which a certified copy will be sent to each of those Powers. IN TESTIMONY WHEREOF the several plenipotentiaries have signed the present General Act and have affixed thereto their seals. DONE at Berlin, the 26th day of February, 1885. [Signatures included here.]

Sexual Violence, And Stranger Violence - 1056 Words

In training we will discuss three scenarios dealing with stalking, intimate violence, and stranger violence. This training will help us determine the definition and how to deal with these areas of crime. The scenarios may or may not show how 3 areas are separate and/or combined. This training will have questions and answers that are able to be easily used as helpful guides for the trainees. Each scenario discussed will highlight stalking. Stalking creates a psychological prison that deprives its victims of basic liberty of movement and security in their homes (ncjrs.gov, 2016). One scenario that could be present would be stalking and intimate violence combined. Just as in the Simpson case, OJ felt the need to be in control in the relationship between him and Nicole. He felt that he was in a power struggle and needed to have the upper hand so to speak. This urge/need resulted in intimate violence. He was verbally, mentally, and physically abusive to Nicole. He followed his actions with statements of caring and love towards Nicole to prompt her into forgiving him and allowing opportunity for his repeat actions. Because of Nicole actual love and feeling submission as a wife she gave in to this abuse and for a time allowed it to continue. When Nicole took herself out of harms way, OJ lost control somewhat and then the need to stalk her to let her know that he still had some control and was there was still present. So, now we ask, why does the victim stay? Well maybe it givesShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children1127 Words   |  5 PagesDomestic Violence Violence and domestic violence are very popular issues of social concern of our times. Experts define a few types of domestic abuse, namely psychological, physical, emotional, verbal, sexual, and others, and they all are considered very harmful to families, especially to the youngest members. 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According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the definition for marital rape is defined as, â€Å"sexual intercourse forced on a women by her husband, knowingly against her will.† (Oxford University Press). However, the legal definition varies from state to next; marital rape is commonly defined as unwanted penetration or intercourse (oral, anal, or vaginal) taken by force and/or threatRead MoreAn Urgent Issue in Our Society - Violence Against Women 1042 Words   |  5 PagesThe concept of violence might only represent a negative image. It refers to a set of radical human behaviors, for example, perpetrator would use physical force to hurt or kill people on purpose. Besides, the typology of violence in World Health Organization (WHO) has an explicit structure, which comprise physical, psychological, and sexual to families, partners, friends or strangers (). 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Do Music Lyrics Promote Violence Resear free essay sample

There are some, however, that can be quite harmful, especially to a vulnerable audience. Todays music and lyrical content have undergone a drastic change since the introduction Of rock and roll more than forty years ago. If parents in the fifties did not like Elvis gyrating hips, they certainly would be baffled by how quickly we have reached this anything goes mentality. The anti-social themes common in popular music have compelled some adults to rally against it, especially music such as heavy metal and rap.Plato once stated, Any musical innovation is dangerous to the whole state and ought to be prohibited. Heavy metal lyrics, for example, usually contain themes of alienation, retribution, and angst. The lyrics themselves contain references to sex, drug use, suicide, Satanism, and other violence. From the listeners point of view, the lyrics are barely recognizable and the music is loud and guitar driven. Seeing how you can not really ever hear what the lyrics say, they become open to interpretation for whoever listens. We will write a custom essay sample on Do Music Lyrics Promote Violence Resear or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Rap music is just as bad if not worse as heavy metal depending on the message given in the song. Rap lyrics are chanted in cadence and are accompanied by rhythmic music that may include scratching or spinning. The lyrics of rap music tend to contain objectionable language and insinuate things just like heavy metal. My concern is not with popular music, or even with a particular genre, such as heavy metal or rap. My concern is with those songs that glorify violence, racism, murder, mayhem, and condone the abuse of women.I am not emphasizing any type of censorship, but I am emphasizing some type of responsibility or citizenship. Music is important to this culture and its identity. Music helps define social and sub-cultural boundaries. Todays culture face far more difficulties and dangers than their counterparts did just a generation ago. Over the last thirty years, violent juvenile crime has jumped by more than five hundred percent. The impact that music has had on behavior is complex and varies greatly.The best way to determine what the impact is, what violent lyrics assert, and owe the lyrics fit into the impact of popular entertainment is to encourage research, debate, and discussion. Teen suicide has tripled, unwed teen pregnancy has skyrocketed, and casual drug use among teens has jumped nearly fifty percent alone in the last four years (Lustiest). A teenagers preference for certain types of music can also correlate on to how the kid behaves as well as the other activities they do. Music has always had a great impact on adolescents and how they are exposed to certain things. Do Music Lyrics Promote Violence Resear free essay sample We all know music itself can have an effect on people from the moment the song begins to the moment it ends. It can make them happy, think about past break ups, think about someone they love, miss a family member that has passed, want to get up and dance, or annoy us when they get stuck In our heads. Music is there for us and can get us through any situation. Most music can cause people to experience a Did range of emotions, most of which can be either really wonderful or absolutely readers.There are some, however, that can be quite harmful, especially to a vulnerable audience. Todays music and lyrical content have undergone a drastic change since the Introduction of rock and roll more than forty years ago. If parents In the fifties did not Like Elvis gyrating hips, they certainly would be baffled by how quickly we have reached this anything goes mentality. We will write a custom essay sample on Do Music Lyrics Promote Violence Resear or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The anta-social themes common In popular music have compelled some adults to rally against It, especially music such as heavy metal and rap. Plato once stated, Any musical innovation is dangerous to the whole state and ought to be prohibited. Heavy metal lyrics, for example, usually contain themes of alienation, retribution, and angst. The lyrics themselves contain references to sex, drug use, suicide, Satanism, and other violence. From the listeners point of view, the lyrics are barely recognizable and the music is loud and guitar driven. Seeing how you can not really ever hear what the lyrics say, they become open to interpretation for whoever listens. Rap music is just as bad if not worse as heavy metal depending on the message given in the song.Rap lyrics are chanted in cadence and are accompanied by rhythmic music that may include scratching or spinning. The lyrics of rap music tend to contain objectionable language and insinuate things Just like heavy metal. My concern is not with popular music, or even with a particular genre, such as heavy metal or rap. My concern is with those songs that glorify violence, racism, murder, mayhem, and condone the abuse of women. I am not emphasizing any type of enshrines, but I am emphasizing some type of responsibility or citizenship.Music is important to this culture and its identity. Music helps define social and sub-cultural boundaries. Todays culture face far more difficulties and dangers than their counterparts did Just a generation ago. Over the last thirty years, violent juvenile crime has Jumped by more than five hundred percent. The Impact that music has had on behavior Is complex and varies greatly. The best way to determine what the Impact Is, what violent lyrics assert, and how the yards fit Into the Impact of popular entertainment Is to encourage research, debate, and discussion.Teen suicide has tripled, unwed teen pregnancy has skyrocketed, and casual drug use among teens has Jumped nearly fifty percent alone In the last four years (Lustfully). A teenagers preference for certain types of music can also correlate on to how the kid behaves as well as the other castles they do. Music has always had a great impact on adolescents and how they are exposed to certain things. -Nereid up and dance, or annoy us when they get stuck in our heads. Music is there for us Med range of emotions, most of which can be either really wonderful or absolutely alienable audience. Introduction of rock and roll more than forty years ago. If parents in the fifties did not like Elvis gyrating hips, they certainly would be baffled by how quickly we have reached this anything goes mentality. The anti-social themes common in popular music have compelled some adults to rally against it, especially music such as heavy Rap music is Just as bad if not worse as heavy metal depending on the message important to this culture and its identity. Music helps define social and sub-cultural counterparts did Just a generation ago.Over the last thirty years, violent Juvenile The impact that music has had on behavior is complex and varies greatly. The best way to determine what the impact is, what violent lyrics assert, and how the lyrics fit into the impact of popular entertainment is to encourage research, debate, and casual drug use among teens has Jumped nearly fifty percent alone in the last four years (Liquidity). Kid behaves as well as the other activities they do.

Solidarity and purposefulness Essay Example

Solidarity and purposefulness Paper The play I am studying is called The Inspector Calls. In this essay I will assess the dramatic impact of the inspector in the play with reference to one other character in the play.  The Inspector Calls was written in 1945 but set in 1912. This means that the audience has insight into the future. For example when Mr Birling states The Titanic-she sails this week-forty-six thousand eight hundred tons-forty six thousand eight hundred tons- New York in five days-and every luxury-and unsinkable. In this situation the audience would be feeling rather smug because they know that the Titanic does sink. Priestly was aiming to show that everybody in the society should be responsible for their own actions instead of just thinking of themselves. He also shows that people should be treated with the same respect whoever they are. Lastly Priestly tries to make people think about their place in society and the effects of their actions. This is revealed as Priestly takes each character in turn and explains to them and the family how their actions have affected Eva Smith. Before the Inspector arrived the well off family, The Birlings, who wrongly believe they are better than other families, were having a party to celebrate their daughter Sheilas engagement to a man called Gerald Croft who was also very well off. Everyone appeared extremely happy and all of them friendly to each other like a family. Then the Inspector entered. The lighting changes from pink and intimate to brighter and harder. The effect of this is that the audience becomes aware that a more sinister atmosphere is approaching and also increases the temper and emotions in the characters. Also making the play more watch able for the audience. We will write a custom essay sample on Solidarity and purposefulness specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Solidarity and purposefulness specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Solidarity and purposefulness specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The Inspector immediately quietens the atmosphere. By doing this he makes the mood of the celebration tense. He does this by singling out one person personally and asking the questions he imposed specifically to them. He is described as a not very big man. However he also states that he creates a massiveness, solidarity and purposefulness. Priestly also describes him by saying that he speaks carefully, weightily and has a disconcerting habit of looking hard at the person he addresss before speaking. There is an air of menace about him, unlike the other characters in the play. He is single minded in pursuing his chosen line of investigation. He is so certain about his facts that he unsettles the audience because they can tell that there is something strange about him. When the Inspector is around nobody challenges his version of events. This is because he speaks with a lot of authority so nobody questions him and immediately thinks he is right. However the other characters question these facts after he has left. The Inspector is extremely confident when speaking. This conveys to the audience that he is more powerful than the other people in the house. Furthermore it makes him seem strange and suspicious to the audience. This is because he seems to know everything the family is going to say before they say it. Also, he does not really uncover the truth, he already knows it. He only uncovers it for the characters benefit. This makes him not like a real police inspector because they uncover the truth creating tension. The Inspector acts like a narrator in the play. He tells the story at his own pace. The Inspector links separate incidents into one coherent life story. He often supplies dates or fills in back ground. This adds to the tension because the audience does not know where and from whom the Inspector got the dates and the character background information. He undermines that the characters complacent assumption that they are decent citizens. Each character finds this a devastating experience. The characters that resist telling the Inspector the truth suffer more than people who are open with him. For example the Inspector says to Gerald . if youre easy with me, Im easy with you. He makes no judgement upon Gerald and also tries to stop Sheila from blaming herself too much. However he begins to loose patience with Mr Birling. For instance Dont stammer and yammer at me again, man. Im losing patience with you people He is an enigmatic figure. We never learn his first name causing the audience to wonder who he really is. He neither changes nor develops, but frequently repeats, I havent much time. This creates tension because the audience do not know why he has so little time. Inspector Gooles name is a pun on ghoul a malevolent spirit or ghost. He could be seen as some kind of spirit, sent on behalf of the dead girl to torment the consciences of the characters in the play, or as a sort of policeman conducting an inquiry as a preliminary to the Day of Judgement, or even as a for warming of things to come. This adds to the tension because the audience does not know who the Inspector is. Priestly did not want to tell the audience who the Inspector really is. To reveal his identity as a hoaxer or some kind of spirit would have spoilt the unresolved tension that is so effective at the end of the play. The Inspector behaves as the voice of social conscience. For example You see, we have to share something. If theres nothing else, well have to share our guilt. He is a socialist meaning that he believes that everyone should share. The character I am studying is called Eric and he is Mr Birlings son. Eric is characterised as half shy, half assertive. At the beginning of the play he did not know what his parents were really like and at the end of the play he did not like their real personalities. He conveys the difference between young men and older men. This is shown when Eric does not catch onto the jokes Mr Birling and Gerald share. For example in Act one when the Inspector rings the doorbell, Gerald and Mr Birling shares a joke and Eric says, Here what do you mean? and when he realises it was a joke he says Well, I dont think its very funny. This shows the difference in age between the three and also makes Eric seem very young like hes being treated like a young child. When Eric says Here, what. he does not share the joke again between Mr Birling and Gerald. He attracts attention, and then suspicion, by his evident alarm at the news of the Inspectors visit. This makes the audience think that Eric could be hiding something. Eric arouses curiosity with his sudden guffaw in Act one. This may mean that Eric knows something about Gerald that the others do not because Sheila has just been scolding Gerald for not seeing her over the summer because of his work.